A collection of ancient jewels from one of the most significant finds in the history of Buddhism has been returned to India, but questions and ethical concerns linger about the process.
The Piprahwa gems were obtained by British estate agent William Claxton Peppé in 1898 and are more than 2,000 years old.
The collection was believed to have been found with the ash and bone of the Buddha in northern India, near the border with Nepal.
The part of the haul kept by Mr Peppé was passed down through his family to his great-grandson, Chris Peppé.
He then listed the collection for sale with Sotheby's auction house in Hong Kong this year, telling the BBC in May he felt it was the "fairest and most transparent way" to return the relics to Buddhists.
The public auction prompted New Delhi to threaten legal action to prevent the sale going ahead, arguing it violated "Indian and international laws as well as UN conventions".
The auction house then entered negotiations with the Indian government.
On Wednesday, local time, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi announced the 349 jewels had been returned to India.
"These sacred relics highlight India's close association with Bhagwan Buddha and his noble teachings," Mr Modi said on X.
"It also illustrates our commitment to preserving and protecting different aspects of our glorious culture."
The buyer was Indian industrialist, Pirojsha Godrej, executive vice chair of consumer goods giant Godrej Industries Group.
Mr Godrej said in a statement the gems were "not just artefacts" but "symbols of peace, compassion, and the shared heritage of humanity".
The Godrej family is one of India's wealthiest, with Forbes estimating its net worth at $US16.7 billion ($25.8b) in 2023.
Culture Minister Gajendra Singh Shekhawat was reported as describing the arrangement as "an exemplary case of public-private partnership".
"This is one of the most significant instances of repatriation of our lost heritage," Mr Shekhawat said.
Colonialism 'gift that keeps on giving'
Ashley Thompson, the chair of South-East Asian art history at SOAS University of London, welcomed the return of the gems to India, but questioned the process.
"How different is such a transaction from that originally envisaged by Sotheby's and the Peppé family?" Professor Thompson told the ABC.
"Should ex-colonised countries be required to purchase their own heritage taken from them in colonial contexts? Should Buddha relics be bought at all?
"In the end, with the Piprahwa case, it appears that colonialism is truly the gift that keeps on giving."
The value of the transaction was not disclosed, but some estimated the collection to be worth $20 million at the time of its initial auction.
In a statement, Sotheby's said it was "delighted to have facilitated the return of the Piprahwa gems to India".
At the time the haul was unearthed, the British colonial government took ownership of it and gave it to the king of modern-day Thailand.
He then gave parts of the collection as gifts to other countries, including Myanmar and Sri Lanka, where they continue to be venerated.
William Claxton Peppé was allowed to keep a fifth of the total collection.
Professor Thompson said she looked forward to seeing how the Indian government might collaborate with other Buddhist communities around Asia to care for the relics.
"There is a window here for developing new models of equitable custodianship of shared heritage which would surpass national borders and the associated models of ownership which so frequently provoke conflict," she said.
The Indian Express reported that a portion of the gems would be on loan to the National Museum for five years, and that Godrej Industries had agreed to display the entire collection upon its arrival in India for three months.
