Emily thought she could do one job for life, but then she turned 35.
The former HR professional — who asked to use a pseudonym as she feared repercussions for speaking to Western media — was laid off earlier this year.
This was despite having 11 years' experience and no major issues with her work.
Like many others in the same situation, she blamed China's "curse of 35" — a phenomenon of age discrimination driven by employers looking for younger and cheaper workers.
"I used to believe I could do one job until I retired. Now I know I need to build my competitiveness," Emily told the ABC.
Combined with the sluggish Chinese economy and persistent unemployment, the phenomenon has led to a widespread feeling of economic insecurity among aging millennials.
That sentiment was shared by multiple people who spoke to the ABC from across China, who asked to stay anonymous for fear of backlash from the government.
What's behind the 'curse of 35'?
Until 2019, national government policy mandated that new civil servants be under 35, and the private sector tended to follow the government's lead.
Many job listings still explicitly restrict applicants to 35 and under.
Younger candidates are often seen as more motivated than older employees with lower expectations for pay, according to Pan Wang, an associate professor of Chinese and Asian studies at UNSW.
"Younger workers are thought of as 'human resources' whereas workers above 35 are viewed as 'human costs,'" she told the ABC.
Young people are also thought to have fewer complaints about working "996" — the gruelling culture of working from 9am to 9pm, six days a week, which is common in the tech industry.
"They are not fussy about salary and can take high-intensity work," Dr Wang said.
"For newly-emerged sectors like technology companies, they prefer quick learners, hard workers and creativity.
"Experience is less important."
Employees who haven't been promoted to management by the age of 35 are also often perceived as less successful and so surplus to requirements.
How is it affecting people?
When Emily lost her job in administration she couldn't find anything else in a similar field.
"I registered on job hunting apps right after losing my job and sent out resumes for a week," she said.
"They either got rejected or had no response at all."
She considered a career pivot to become a barista or tea sommelier, but that also didn't work out.
After two months of fruitless job searching, she became a tutor.
Laid-off workers often struggle to find jobs matching their previous status and salary, sometimes causing deep emotional distress.
Some turn to the gig economy and food delivery, while others — including Emily — look to social media to augment their income.
Chinese social media platform Red is awash with aspiring influencers, who have gained thousands of followers posting about the hurdles of job-seeking.
"I earned money by posting online. I found more ways of living than just working in the office," Emily said.
Yang Zou, a 29-year-old working at a Beijing tech firm, agreed workers often felt vulnerable around 35, but said the "curse of 35" was an exaggeration.
"Everyone feels anxious when facing challenges in the job market, China is not the exception," he told the ABC.
He stressed he had "never been told to decline a candidate because of age".
And about a fifth of his firm's employees are currently in their mid-30s, he said.
In his view, older employees risked losing their jobs when they stopped learning new skills but continued to request senior-level salaries.
He personally wasn't worried about succumbing to the "curse".
"I've never felt anxious about my age because I keep learning every day, I catch up on the latest technologies in my industry," he said.
"People who don't learn any useful skills — except for flattering bosses — should be concerned."
An expat working in marketing in Beijing — who did not disclose his name as he feared backlash for speaking to the media — said ageism also impacted foreign workers, but less than Chinese employees.
"A programmer above 35 would be considered senior in Chinese tech companies," he said.
"Unless transitioning into management, they would be ripe for replacement by someone younger and cheaper."
The slowing economy and elevated unemployment have allowed employers to be selective in hiring, with a steady stream of graduates standing ready to replace senior staff.
He said almost all of his Chinese colleagues — the ones "without very wealthy parents" at least — had expressed "fear, uncertainty and anxiety" after turning 30.
'Curse' has large impact on women
Age discrimination is generally even worse for women.
Traditionally, they are expected to have more caring responsibilities and are seen as less likely to work overtime.
And female job interview candidates often face probing questions about their plans for children.
"A childless woman in her 30s would easily be discarded as too old for most positions, and if she's married, she'd be passed over due to the risk of her getting a child soon," the marketing worker said.
Emily said women commonly faced discrimination on two fronts — age and gender.
"There are many jobs that clearly say: 'Suitable for men,'" she said.
"And even if it's not stated, they'll filter out women's resumes later."
Dr Wang said ageism can often intersect with gender discrimination, as well as class prejudice.
"Migrant women over 35 from rural China have a precarious status and are the most vulnerable in the job market," she said.
She said women were often targeted for lay-offs, such as happened during the state-owned enterprise restructures of the 1990s.
Dr Wang said they "tend to encounter glass ceilings" and are typically "perceived as less capable" than men for leadership positions.
"Compared to men, women are more prone to unemployment and re-employment, have lower skills and more family responsibilities, and hence contribute less value to companies," she said.
What could change?
Since the government's nationwide age 35 limit was eased, provincial authorities have been granted more flexibility.
However, only some provinces have raised the limit for certain civil servant applicants from 35 to 40, with calls for more to follow suit.
China has no specific law against age discrimination, though last year state media criticised firms for "discriminatory" hiring practices.
Analysts said the public wanted action on ageism, and the government had taken some steps to address the issue.
"They've banned sexism, banned companies from posting 'men preferred' or 'men only' job ads, and banned companies from asking women about child-bearing and marriage — or requiring applicants to take pregnancy tests," Dr Wang said.
But these initiatives could be hard to enforce, and Dr Wang said broader reforms were unlikely as age requirements for some jobs are "not seen as discriminatory".
Ageism just one part of broader demographic story
As China's population ages, people are increasingly expected to work into later life, with Beijing recently raising the retirement age to 63 for men and 55 or 58 for women, depending on job sector.
Though the policy will be gradually implemented, the announcement caused an outcry online — encapsulated by one viral comment on Weibo in September:
"When I was born they said there were too many. When I gave birth they said there were too few. When I wanted to work they said I was too old. And when I retire they say I'm too young," the post said.
But while some millennials and gen Xers openly resent government policy changes on births and pensions, Dr Wang said middle and old age were increasingly being "redefined".
"Seventy is the new 60, and 60 is the new 50," she said.
However she added that stereotypes about age "remain prevalent" and are deeply-rooted in Chinese society.
"It'll take time to disappear," she said.
